The reverse zoonosis transfer cycle from the human-animal-plant-environment interface: How antibiotic-resistant bacteria from humans threaten the environment and fuel the rise of superbugs

The uncontrolled use of antibiotics for the treatment of human diseases and animal farming led to a global crisis in the form of the re-emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARB). This paper critically explores the reverse zoonosis transfer cycle and highlights facts about ARB in the environment and re-infections in humans. ARB shed by humans through various routes contaminates the environment, where it can persist and even thrive. The contaminated reservoir and various environmental sources aid ARB strains to re-enter the human vicinity and re-infect human populations, where they may be in the healthcare system in the form of resistance to multiple antibiotics. These strains are called “superbugs,” leading to potentially untreatable infections. This paper discusses the evidence for this hypothesis, highlighting the consequences for public health and the environment. Hence, it explores the implications for antibiotic stewardship and emphasizes the urgency of developing alternative strategies to combat infectious diseases.