Zoonotic diseases in a 'Pandemicene': How can geomorphology contribute to the improved characterisation of dynamic 'pathogenic landscapes'?

A zoonosis is an infectious disease that can be transmitted to humans from animals, potentially leading to an epidemic or pandemic. Increasing research into the environmental drivers of zoonoses in a so-called 'Pandemicene' has focused on changes to land use, land cover and climate. But what about the associated changes to earth surface processes, landforms and landscapes that may impact on zoonoses and other infectious diseases with environmental reservoirs (e.g. sapronoses)? This is a crucial question, especially in the context of the Anthropocene, a proposed time interval during which humans have directly and indirectly impacted geomorphological systems and associated abiotic-biotic interactions at local through global scales. Biogeomorphology (and especially zoogeomorphology) potentially has many insights to contribute but is largely divorced from a rapidly expanding body of infectious disease research. By outlining geomorphological principles and providing examples from across dryland, arctic, tropical and temperate environments, we examine the extent to which water, sediment, soil and other organic matter that is directly or indirectly influenced by non-human animal activity may critically influence the emergence and transmission of infectious diseases. In an era of rapid environmental and socioeconomic change, we contend that geomorphological concepts, data and techniques can play a key role in improved characterisation of dynamic 'pathogenic landscapes'. We identify several challenges and opportunities that may provide particular foci for enhanced geomorphological contributions to this growing threat to societal resilience, including: (1) working in transdisciplinary 'One Health' contexts to test hypotheses about geomorphological controls on pathogen emergence and spread; (2) collaborating with archaeologists to examine past disease dynamics and identify potential future pathogen sources; (3) enhancing existing global maps of infection risk/disease emergence at local to regional scales; and (4) contributing to the robust evidence base needed for policies to monitor and manage infectious disease risk.