Time to recognize the ecosystem service of vegetation-supplied precipitation in management and governance 

Globally, 60% of the evaporation from land returns as precipitation over land and a fifth of annual precipitation over land is directly dependent on the presence of vegetation-supplied moisture. In many regions, particularly in dry seasons, a majority of the precipitation relies on moisture from vegetation and is therefore vulnerable to changes in upwind land use that modify water moisture supply to the atmosphere. The benefits of precipitation for societies are invaluable, ranging from food production to carbon sequestration, and the role of ecosystems for supplying moisture for rainfall can be therefore be considered an important, albeit under-appreciated, ecosystem service.   Our research shows that loss of moisture-supplying ecosystems, such as deforestation in the Amazon, can disrupt such moisture supplies, thereby reducing precipitation and negatively impacting crop yield, wetlands, and forest resilience in downwind regions. Conversely, some human activities, such as afforestation and irrigation, bring untapped subsoil water resources into the atmosphere and can help mitigate dry spells both locally and remotely. While they can have the potential to bring moisture-supplying benefits similar to moisture-supplying ecosystems, they also carry the risk of depleting local surface and groundwater resources and bringing about other adverse trade-offs.  The past decade has seen rapid developments in moisture tracking models and data, which have brought to light previously ignored long-distance moisture flow relationships among different land areas, land users, and land-use decisions. These scientific advances mean that it is now possible to map out the ecosystem service of vegetation-supplied precipitation at a global scale in great detail, as well as to track their dependencies and interdependencies.  We argue that the time is ripe for moisture-supplying ecosystems to be widely considered in land management and governance contexts. Nevertheless, a few important challenges remain. Particularly, future research needs to better constrain the uncertainties of moisture recycling relationships under climate change and atmospheric circulation change; to understand the effects of ecosystem adaptation, regime shifts, and social-ecological feedbacks; as well as to quantify the multiple benefits and trade-offs of the ecosystem service of vegetation-supplied precipitation. A better understanding of the relationships between moisture supply, drought mitigation, ecosystem resilience, and terrestrial carbon is especially relevant under the current UN Decade of Ecosystem Restoration as well as for achieving the Paris Agreement temperature target.