The effects of musical instrument training on fluid intelligence and executive functions in healthy older adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Intervention studies combining cognitive and motor demands have reported far -transfer cognitive benefits in healthy ageing. This systematic review and meta-analysis evaluated the effects of music and rhythm intervention on cognition in older adulthood. Inclusion criteria specified: 1) musical instrument training; 2) healthy, musically-naive adults (>= 60 years); 3) control group; 4) measure of executive function. Ovid, PubMed, Scopus and the Cochrane Library online databases were searched in August 2023. Data from thirteen studies were analysed (N = 502 participants). Study quality was assessed using the Cochrane Risk of Bias tool (RoB 2; Sterne et al., 2019). Random effects models revealed: a low effect on inhibition (d = 0.27, p = .0335); a low-moderate effect on switching (d = -0.39, p = .0021); a low-moderate effect on verbal category switching (d = 0.39, p = .0166); and a moderate effect on processing speed (d = 0.47, p < .0001). No effect was found for selective visual attention, working memory, or verbal memory. With regards to overall bias, three studies were rated as "high", nine studies were rated as having "some concerns" and one was rated "low". The meta-analysis suggests that learning to play a musical instrument enhances attention inhibition, switching and processing speed in ageing.