Student–Athletes’ Academic and Athletic Motivation Scale (SAAMS) for adolescents in secondary school: development, evaluation, and psychometric properties

Previous dual-career (DC) research focused on measuring student–athletes’ motivation in the academic and athletic contexts. Existing measurement instruments are insufficient for adolescent student–athletes and countries with independent education and sport systems. The Student–Athletes’ Academic and Athletic Motivation Scale (SAAMS) was developed based on the expectancy–value framework (EVF) with its dimensions ability beliefs, expectations, importance, interest, usefulness, and cost. The development of the SAAMS followed three phases: (1) item development, (2) scale development, and (3) scale evaluation. The initial version was tested with 346 student–athletes (mean age = 17.3 years; females = 47.7