GMOs in Mediterranean & Balkan countries: state of affairs, research, and regulation

The use of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in agriculture and food has been a “never-ending” debate that has caused huge controversy worldwide over the past 25 years. GM foods and crops continue to be opposed by some not-for-profit non-governmental organizations (NGOs), on grounds ranging from social justice, environmental safety, public health, food sovereignty, and opposition to corporate power and patenting of seeds, to support for non-GMO, organic, and agroecological farming methods. The application of genetic engineering in agriculture has and always will raise concerns within the European public. Possible ways to address the public’s negative attitude to GMOs include ensuring consumer choice in the marketplace by continuing to require labeling for all GMOs, including those produced with new GM techniques such as gene editing. In addition, greater public involvement could be encouraged in policy decision-making, including a say in which technologies are developed and implemented, depending on how they accord with wider societal goals, values, and priorities. There is, at present, a low level of public awareness about new GM technologies, but attitudes may evolve as people become more aware of the topic, as has happened in the later 1990s with first-generation transgenic GM crops and foods; on that occasion leading to a largely negative stance. Issues, amongst others, evaluated within this chapter include: labeling of GMO products, characterization of public opposition to GM crops and foods, the industry response to public attitudes, the role of education and scientific knowledge on GMO products, public engagement and education, direct action against GM crops, scientific evidence on GMOs, NGOs’ use of science, considerations beyond science, differing evaluations of risk and need for policy change, NGOs’ role in the progress of GM golden rice, and the ongoing gene editing debate.