SGLT2 inhibitors prevent LPS-induced M1 macrophage polarization and alleviate inflammatory bowel disease by downregulating NHE1 expression

Background Classically activated M1 macrophages, characterized by aberrant glycolysis and secretion of inflammatory cytokines, play pivotal roles in inflammatory diseases, including inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Recently, sodium-glucose co-transporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors were shown to suppress Na + /H + exchanger 1 (NHE1) and Na + /Ca 2+ exchanger 1 (NCX1) activity, regulating downstream intracellular Ca 2+ concentrations in cardiomyocytes. However, whether SGLT2 inhibitors regulate M1 macrophage polarization by downregulating NHE1 and NCX1 remains unknown. Methods We analyzed cellular responses to SGLT2 inhibitors using mouse bone marrow-derived macrophages and peritoneal macrophages treated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS). To induce IBD, we used a dextran sulfate sodium salt-induced colitis mouse model. Results We observed that NHE1 and NCX1 were overexpressed in LPS-treated macrophages, leading to M1 macrophage polarization. Mechanistically, NHE1 and NCX1-mediated Ca 2+ accumulation in the macrophage resulted in enhanced glycolysis by promoting PI3K/AKT/mTORC1 signaling. SGLT2 inhibitors suppressed both the expression levels and activities of NHE1 and NCX1, and consequently downregulated PI3K/AKT/mTORC1 signaling and glycolysis in LPS-treated macrophages. We observed inhibition of LPS-stimulated M1 polarization and cytokine production by SGLT2 inhibitors in vitro, ex vivo, and in an IBD mouse model. Conclusions NHE1 promotes M1 macrophage polarization and SGLT2 inhibitors are a novel strategy to treat M1 macrophage-mediated inflammatory diseases, including IBD.