Cross-lagged associations between father-child numeracy activities and very young children's number competence

Utilizing a sample of 109 young Chinese children who were followed up from the end of their nursery programs (Time 1 [T1]; age: M ± SD = 38.01 ± 2.68 months) to the beginning of their preschool programs (Time 2 [T2]), this study examined the reciprocal relation between father-child math activities and children's numerical ability. The results demonstrated that children's numerical ability at T1 negatively predicted the frequency of father-child number-skill activities and number-book activities at T2, but these predictions were only significant among girls. The frequency of father-child number-application activities at T1 positively predicted children's numerical ability at T2, but these predictions were only significant among boys. The findings highlight the significance of father-child number-application activities for boys' math learning. They also underline the possibility of fathers' participation in number-skill activities and number-book activities to remedy girls' limited numerical ability.