Intra-urban Variations of the CO 2 Fluxes at the Surface-Atmosphere Interface in the Seoul Metropolitan Area

Severe spatiotemporal heterogeneity of emissions sources and limited measurement networks have been hampering the monitoring and understanding of CO 2 fluxes in large cities, a great concern in climate research as big cities are among the major sources of anthropogenic CO 2 in the climate system. To understand the CO 2 fluxes in Seoul, Korea, CO 2 fluxes at eight surface energy balance sites, six urban (vegetation-area fraction < 15%) and two suburban (vegetation-area fraction > 60%), for 2017–2018 are analyzed and attributed to the local land-use and business types. The analyses show that the CO 2 flux variations at the suburban sites are mainly driven by vegetation and that the CO 2 flux differences between the urban and suburban sites originate from the differences in the vegetation-area fraction and anthropogenic CO 2 emissions. For the CO 2 fluxes at the urban sites; (1) vehicle traffic (traffic) and heating-fuel consumption (heating) contribute > 80% to the total, (2) vegetation effects are minimal, (3) the seasonal cycle is driven mainly by heating, (4) the contribution of heating is positively related to the building-area fraction, (5) the annual total is positively (negatively) correlated with the commercial-area (residential-area) fraction, and (6) the traffic at the commercial sites depend further on the main business types to induce distinct CO 2 flux weekly cycles. This study shows that understanding and estimation of CO2 fluxes in large urban areas require careful site selections and analyses based on detailed consideration of the land-use and business types refined beyond the single representative land-use type widely-used in contemporary studies.