Lunar mantle structure and composition inferred from Apollo 12-Explorer 35 electromagnetic sounding

Constraints on the interior structure of the Moon have been derived from its inductive response, principally as measured by the magnetic transfer function (TF) between the distantly orbiting Explorer 35 satellite and the Apollo 12 surface station. The most successful prior studies used a dataset spanning 0.01-1 mHz, so the lunar response could be modeled as a simple dipole. However, earlier efforts also produced transfer functions up to 40 mHz. The smaller electromagnetic skin depth at higher frequency would better resolve the uppermost mantle-where key information about primitive lunar evolution may still be preserved-but requires a multipole treatment.I compute new profiles of electrical conductivity vs depth using both low- and high-frequency ranges of published Apollo-Explorer TFs. Using the low-frequency data, I derive temperature profiles at depths >400 km (<1 mHz) consistent with conductive heat loss and expectations of the iron (and possibly water) content of the mantle. The near-constant iron fraction (Mg# 81 +/- 10) could imply efficient mixing due to now-defunct convection. Alternatively, incomplete overturn of gravitationally unstable magma-ocean cumulates could have left a heterogeneous distribution of minerals at hundred-km scales that are not resolved by electromagnetic sounding. A third explanation is that the electromagnetically probed region may be the initial equilibrium crystallization in a mantle that did not buoyantly overturn.In contrast, the high-frequency data produced higher conductivities than expected, requiring unrealistically low Mg# or high water content at depths 200-400 km. Either the published transfer functions > > 1 mHz are incorrect, or the TF multipole method at the Moon is unreliable. Future electromagnetic sounding using the magnetotelluric method can operate up to 100 s Hz and is largely insensitive to multipole effects, resolving structure to 100 km or less.