Two-dimensional sulfur-doped carbon stacked sheets electrode design for potential adrenaline screening in human fluids and pharmaceutical drugs

An active electrochemical sensor for screening adrenaline (AD) in human fluid samples and pharmaceutical drugs is needed in clinical investigations and drug quality. The synthesis of sulfur-doped carbon microspheres (S-CMS) and irregular-edge carbon stacked sheet (S-CSS) structure was controlled based on the green synthesis of biomasses (i.e., lactose). The S-CSS intrinsic features of rough surface texture and stacked sheets with irregular edges were illustrated using various characterization techniques. The S-CSS was constructed with irregular edges around the stacked round sheets with a size range of 70–100 nm and a rough outer surface with ridged ends. The sulfur doping of S-CSS associated with a nanoporous network, and the high surface area ascertained a highly active transducing element for sensitive and selective electrode surface design. The designed electrode functionality and composition provide high electron/molecular diffusion and enhanced the electrode affinity and sensitivity. Therefore, the S-CSS-based sensor exhibited a fast charge transport surface, highly efficient electrocatalytic properties, and functionalized surfaces with numerous active centers for binding/sensing AD molecules. The S-CSS-based sensor exhibited a wide detection range (0.05–1.45 µM) and detection limit of 0.005 µM. AD-concentrations in blood samples and in pharmaceutical products have been tested using our designed electrode of S-CSS and obtained high selectivity and recovery of 102%. Thus, the S-CSS can be used to monitor AD in pharmaceutical drugs and human blood serum with fast response and using highly economic materials at extremely low concentrations.