Phylogenomics suggests that larvae are ancestral in polyclads, but not homologous to the trochophore

Platyhelminthes (flatworms) are a diverse invertebrate phylum that are useful for exploring life history evolution. Within Platyhelminthes, only two clades develop through a larval stage: freeliving polyclads and parasitic neodermatans. Neodermatan larvae are considered evolutionarily derived, whereas polyclad larvae are hypothesized to be retained from the last common ancestor of Platyhelminthes – and Spiralia – due to ciliary band similarities among polyclad and other spiralian larvae. However, larval evolution has been challenging to investigate within polyclads due to low support for deeper phylogenetic relationships. To investigate polyclad life history evolution, we generated transcriptomic data for 21 species of polyclads to build a wellsupported phylogeny for the group. We then used ancestral state reconstruction to investigate ancestral modes of development (direct vs indirect) within Polycladida, and flatworms in general. The resulting tree provides strong support for deeper nodes and we recover a new monophyletic clade of early branching cotyleans. Early branching clades of acotyleans and cotyleans possess diverse modes of development, suggesting a complex history of larval evolution in polyclads that likely includes multiple losses and/or multiple gains. Our ancestral state reconstructions in previous platyhelminth phylogenies also suggest that larval similarities between flatworms and other phyla are most likely convergently evolved. ### Competing Interest Statement The authors have declared no competing interest.