The efficiency and effectiveness of different sea urchin removal methods for kelp forest restoration

Sea urchin overgrazing has caused widespread phase shifts from kelp forests to "urchin barrens" on many temperate reefs, reducing habitat complexity, productivity, and biodiversity. Sea urchin removal is increasingly used for kelp restoration; however, few studies have quantified the efficiency and effectiveness of different removal methods, resulting in limited understanding of their practicality. In this study, the efficiency (removal rate) and effectiveness (proportion removed) of four removal methods were evaluated in northeastern New Zealand. We compared culling or collecting sea urchins by either SCUBA or freediving in 128 small-scale plots (25 m(2)). We also evaluated the efficiency and effectiveness of culling in four large (1.6-2 ha) barren areas, scales relevant for restoration. On average, culling sea urchins was 1.9-4.4 times faster than collecting, and SCUBA was 1.5-3.3 times faster than freediving. Removal rates increased with sea urchin density, especially for culling on SCUBA, while freediving removal rates increased with experience. Effectiveness was lower in large-scale removals (86-93% of sea urchins >= 40 mm removed) compared to small-scale removals (98-99%), but sufficient for restoration objectives. Estimated time per area (using SCUBA culling) was similar across large-scale removals (49-57 hours/ha), despite an almost 2-fold variation in initial sea urchin densities (approximately 4-8 urchins/m(2)), suggesting area may better predict total removal time than simply number of sea urchins across low-density ranges. While sea urchin removal provides a rapid, feasible, and effective approach to restoring kelp in urchin barrens, restoration plans need to also address the causes of sea urchin overpopulation to ensure long-term benefits.