A 500 × 500 Dual-Gate SPAD Imager With 100% Temporal Aperture and 1 ns Minimum Gate Length for FLIM and Phasor Imaging Applications

In this article, we report on SwissSPAD3 (SS3), a 500 $\times$ 500 pixel single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD) array, fabricated in 0.18- $\mu \text{m}$ CMOS technology. In this sensor, we introduce a novel dual-gate architecture with two contiguous temporal windows, or gates, guaranteed by the circuit architecture to be nonoverlapping and covering the totality of the sensor’s exposure period. The gates can be adjusted with a temporal resolution of 17.9 ps, and the minimum measured gate width is 0.99 ns; to our knowledge, the shortest reported to date among large-format SPAD imagers. In the dual-channel mode, the burst frame rate is 49.8 and 97.7 kframes/s in the single-channel mode. A 2690-MB/s PCI express (PCIe) interface has been added to the data acquisition framework, enabling continuous operation at approximately 44 and 88 kframes/s. Due to optimizations of the gate-signal tree, we achieved a significant reduction to gate skew and gate width variation, which is negligible with respect to the SPAD temporal jitter. These improvements, along with sub-10-cps dark count rate (DCR) per pixel and 50% maximum photon detection probability (PDP), result in a sensor particularly well suited for fast acquisition fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM) experiments, for which we demonstrate reduced dispersion versus a single-gated sensor.