Hepatitis B vaccines-history, achievements, challenges, and perspectives

The first experimental vaccinations against hepatitis B virus (HBV) were performed in 1970, even before the nature of the administered "Australia antigen" was known. Soon, it was realized that this antigen was the envelope protein (HBV surface antigen, HBsAg), and it was purified from HBV-containing human plasma. Later, it was produced in genetically engineered yeast cells. The excellent efficacy of the HBsAg vaccine was confirmed in numerous studies, particularly in newborns from HBV-infected mothers who almost always become chronic HBV carriers without vaccination. But the vaccine is also highly effective in older children and adults and has been applied worldwide since 1984, leading to a circa tenfold decrease of HBV infections in the vaccinated. Still, there are several challenges with hepatitis B vaccination. In newborns from mothers with very high virus load, the vaccine may fail. Recipients who are immunocompromised, older, smokers, or obese may not produce protective antibodies. Early studies suggested that the vaccine with HBsAg subtype adw2 also protected against infections by other subtypes, but recent observations show that the protection is weaker against heterologous subtypes. Occasionally, escape mutations may develop. Most current HB vaccines are based on the knowledge of 40 years ago and could be significantly improved. Inclusion of the currently neglected preS domains in the HBV envelope would add the most important protective T- and B-cell epitopes to the vaccines. Expression of the HBsAg in mammalian cell cultures would enhance the folding of neutralizing HBsAg epitopes. Use of the regionally prevalent HBsAg subtypes would increase the protection. Optimal adjuvants and epitope carriers may enhance the immunogenicity to the level necessary for immune therapy of chronic hepatitis B.