Optimizing lightning location accuracy: A study of propagation velocity and time of arrival in long-range lightning location algorithms

The propagation velocity (v) and time of arrival (Ta) are the primary factors affecting long-range lightning location. In this paper, we have enhanced the Very Low Frequency Long-range Lightning Location Network (VLF-LLN) in China in terms of both pulse pairing methods and location algorithms. Then, the algorithm utilized in the VLF-LLN, and four other long-range lightning location algorithms were compared using lightning strike accidents, simulated lightning strike, and other lightning data as the reference values. Building on this foundation, the discussion centers on the effect of v and Ta on location accuracy, with the results showing that an appropriate Ta yields a more significant improvement in location accuracy compared to v. VLF-LLN uses the peak time of the ground wave as Ta avoids the significant lag caused by sky wave, which is present in other algorithms, and therefore has the best location accuracy with a median location accuracy of 1.81 km.