Economic inequality and the ecological footprint: Time-varying estimates for four developed economies, 1962–2021

This paper explores the link between income, and wealth inequality and the ecological footprint in France, Netherlands, United States, and United Kingdom from 1962 to 2021. Based on theoretical considerations, we allow the relationship to vary over time. Our analysis provides some support for income inequality influencing ecological footprints, specifically through carbon emissions. Yet, we do not observe a significant effect on non‑carbon footprints. Notably, the link between income inequality and carbon emissions shifted from negative in the 1960s to positive from the late 1980s onwards. Over all our findings imply that economic inequality's impact on the environment is likely limited and context dependent.