Experimental and analytical pipeline for sub-genomic RNA landscape of coronavirus by Nanopore sequencer.

Coronaviruses (CoVs), including severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, can infect a variety of mammalian and avian hosts with significant medical and economic consequences. During the life cycle of CoV, a coordinated series of subgenomic RNAs, including canonical subgenomic messenger RNA and non-canonical defective viral genomes (DVGs), are generated with different biological implications. Studies that adopted the Nanopore sequencer (ONT) to investigate the landscape and dynamics of viral RNA subgenomic transcriptomes applied arbitrary bioinformatics parameters without justification or experimental validation. The current study used bovine coronavirus (BCoV), which can be performed under biosafety level 2 for library construction and experimental validation using traditional colony polymerase chain reaction and Sanger sequencing. Four different ONT protocols, including RNA direct and cDNA direct sequencing with or without exonuclease treatment, were used to generate RNA transcriptomic libraries from BCoV-infected cell lysates. Through rigorously examining the k-mer, gap size, segment size, and bin size, the optimal cutoffs for the bioinformatic pipeline were determined to remove the sequence noise while keeping the informative DVG reads. The sensitivity and specificity of identifying DVG reads using the proposed pipeline can reach 82.6% and 99.6% under the k-mer size cutoff of 15. Exonuclease treatment reduced the abundance of RNA transcripts; however, it was not necessary for future library preparation. Additional recovery of clipped BCoV nucleotide sequences with experimental validation expands the landscape of the CoV discontinuous RNA transcriptome, whose biological function requires future investigation. The results of this study provide the benchmarks for library construction and bioinformatic parameters for studying the discontinuous CoV RNA transcriptome.IMPORTANCEFunctional defective viral genomic RNA, containing all the cis-acting elements required for translation or replication, may play different roles in triggering cell innate immune signaling, interfering with the canonical subgenomic messenger RNA transcription/translation or assisting in establishing persistence infection. This study does not only provide benchmarks for library construction and bioinformatic parameters for studying the discontinuous coronavirus RNA transcriptome but also reveals the complexity of the bovine coronavirus transcriptome, whose functional assays will be critical in future studies.