The research progress of X-ray excited lanthanide-doped nanoparticles

X-rays, renowned for their powerful penetration capabilities, are wildly used in medical diagnostics and material sciences. The distinctive electronic configurations of lanthanide-doped nanoparticles result in their unique luminescent properties. In this review, we first discussed the luminescent mechanism of X-ray-activated lanthanide nanomaterials, including conversion, transport, and luminescence. We then provide a comprehensive summary of the design strategies for lanthanide-doped nanoparticles, the selection of suitable host matrices, choosing the right lanthanide elements, optimizing structural configurations, and employing state-of-the-art synthesis methods. Finally, we highlight the applications of these nanoparticles in fields such as biosensing, photodynamic therapy, optical data storage and time-gated imaging, while also delving into the prospects and challenges associated with these nanoparticles.