Socioeconomic impacts of small conserved sites on rural communities in Madagascar

Madagascar is considered one of the top global biodiversity hotspots while at the same time is among the world's least developed countries. Pressing socioeconomic needs such as food provision often lead to unsustainable land uses and widespread loss, fragmentation and degradation of natural habitats. Thus, ascertaining the socioeconomic effects of small conserved sites is urgent in order to show their benefits and identify their costs to attain sustainable rural development on the island. Here, we used structured questionnaires in two surveys to key local stakeholders, including 1) managers of three conserved sites smaller than 100 ha, and 2) local communities living around such sites (cases) and similar neighbouring communities unaffected by those conserved sites (controls), following a Before -After -Control -Impact design. Median income did not differ between case and control communities, although case communities reported better selfperception of their economic situation and wider availability of basic services. Substantial revenues from tourism accrued only to one local community from a conveniently located, community -managed site: Anja Community Reserve. No differences in the economic effects from the establishment of the conserved sites were found between sex, age or education levels of community members. Exploitation of natural resources from conserved sites was either prohibited (two sites) or severely restricted (one site). As a result, case communities tended to collect fewer natural resources from nearby areas than control communities. Contrary to expectations, case communities reported less economic impact than control communities during the COVID-19 pandemic even though visitors were reduced to zero, which likely indicates greater socioeconomic resilience due to previous community investments and greater availability of ecosystem services. Successful, bottom -up and replicable approaches to locally manage natural resources sustainably are urgently needed in a country with rich and vanishing biodiversity, weak institutions, high poverty rates and strong dependence on natural resources for subsistence.