A least-cost network neutral landscape model of human sites and routes

Context Neutral landscape models generate virtual landscapes that enable computer-based exploration of the effects of spatial patterns on ecological processes free from the restrictions of real-world experimentation. For some questions in landscape ecology it is critical to incorporate human landscape features, such as networks, that are an integral part of human-influenced landscapes. Objectives This paper outlines an approach to produce a neutral landscape model that uses the human geography principle of least-cost movement to create a network of human sites (buildings, camps, mines, settlements, farms, factories, etc.) and routes (trails, roads, railways, canals, powerlines, etc.). Methods We used a least-cost modelling framework to create sites prioritised on least-cost catchment areas and routes based on least-cost paths. The location of sites and routes is determined by an underlying cost-surface that defines how movement costs vary across the landscape. The range of possible network patterns was quantified via raster network metrics and was compared to real-world network data. Results The proposed neutral landscape model produces networks with a wide range of possible patterns, and using real-world data can guide the selection of parameters that mimic human activity in a variety of land cover classes in real-world landscapes. Conclusions This network neutral landscape model extends the potential of neutral landscape models for research into human-influenced landscapes. We provide the code used to generate our examples under a permissive open-source licence.