Automated differentiation of mixed populations of free-flying female mosquitoes under semi-field conditions

Great advances in automated identification systems, or ‘smart traps’, that differentiate insect species have been made in recent years, yet demonstrations of field-ready devices under free-flight conditions remain rare. Here, we describe the results of mixed-species identification of female mosquitoes using an advanced optoacoustic smart trap design under free-flying conditions. Point-of-capture classification was assessed using mixed populations of congeneric ( Aedes albopictus and Aedes aegypti ) and non-congeneric ( Ae. aegypti and Anopheles stephensi ) container-inhabiting species of medical importance. Culex quinquefasciatus , also common in container habitats, was included as a third species in all assessments. At the aggregate level, mixed collections of non-congeneric species ( Ae. aegypti , Cx. quinquefasciatus , and An. stephensi ) could be classified at accuracies exceeding 90% (% error = 3.7–7.1%). Conversely, error rates increased when analysing individual replicates (mean % error = 48.6; 95% CI 8.1–68.6) representative of daily trap captures and at the aggregate level when Ae. albopictus was released in the presence of Ae. aegypti and Cx. quinquefasciatus (% error = 7.8–31.2%). These findings highlight the many challenges yet to be overcome but also the potential operational utility of optoacoustic surveillance in low diversity settings typical of urban environments.