Genome-wide maps of highly-similar intrachromosomal repeats that mediate ectopic recombination in three human genome assemblies.

Repeated sequences spread throughout the genome play important roles in shaping the structure of chromosomes and facilitating the generation of new genomic variation. Through a variety of mechanisms, repeats are involved in generating structural rearrangements such as deletions, duplications, inversions, and translocations, which can have the potential to impact human health. Despite their significance, repetitive regions including tandem repeats, transposable elements, segmental duplications, and low-copy repeats remain a challenge to characterize due to technological limitations inherent to many sequencing methodologies. We performed genome-wide analyses and comparisons of direct and inverted repeated sequences in the latest available human genome reference assemblies including GRCh37 and GRCh38 and the most recent telomere-to-telomere alternate assembly (T2T-CHM13). Overall, the composition and distribution of direct and inverted repeats identified remains similar among the three assemblies but we observed an increase in the number of repeated sequences detected in the T2T-CHM13 assembly versus the reference assemblies. As expected, there is an enrichment of repetitive regions in the short arms of acrocentric chromosomes, which had been previously unresolved in the human genome reference assemblies. We cross-referenced the identified repeats with protein-coding genes across the genome to identify those at risk for being involved in genomic disorders. We observed that certain gene categories, such as olfactory receptors and immune response genes, are enriched among those impacted by repeated sequences likely contributing to human diversity and adaptation. Through this analysis, we have produced a catalogue of direct and inversely oriented repeated sequences across the currently three most widely used human genome assemblies. Bioinformatic analyses of these repeats and their contribution to genome architecture can reveal regions that are most susceptible to genomic instability. Understanding how the architectural genomic features of repeat pairs such as their homology, size and distance can lead to complex genomic rearrangement formation can provide further insights into the molecular mechanisms leading to genomic disorders and genome evolution. Author summary:This study focused on the characterization of intrachromosomal repeated sequences in the human genome that can play important roles in shaping chromosome structure and generating new genomic variation in three human genome assemblies. We observed an increase in the number of repeated sequence pairs detected in the most recent telomere-to-telomere alternate assembly (T2T-CHM13) compared to the reference assemblies (GRCh37 and GRCh38). We observed an enrichment of repeats in the T2T-CHM13 acrocentric chromosomes, which had been previously unresolved. Importantly, our study provides a catalogue of direct and inverted repeated sequences across three commonly used human genome assemblies, which can aid in the understanding of genomic architecture instability, evolution, and disorders. Our analyses provide insights into repetitive regions in the human genome that may contribute to complex genomic rearrangements.