Manufactured housing: Energy burden outcomes from measured and simulated building performance data

This paper reports findings from a manufactured housing development located in a mixed-humid climate zone (CZ 4 A, Virginia, USA). The research employs a multi-step case study methodology to 1) measure building air leakage in-situ in three use cases (existing, factory, enhanced) per ASTM E779 Standard Test Method for Determining Air Leakage Rate by Fan Pressurization and the United States Army Corps (USACE) Building Enclosure Testing procedure, 2) evaluate energy consumption and utility cost outcomes and their impact on housing affordability using both measured and simulated electricity data, 3) propose technology mixes that achieve zero energy ready and zero energy manufactured housing to enhance affordability and reduce energy burden, 4) synthesize lessons learned for future manufactured housing policy considerations. The research found existing manufactured housing units had significant air leakage and energy use that contributed to high energy burden for low-income occupants; >6% at 30% Area Median Income (AMI). Conversely, new factory and enhanced units had lower air leakage, energy use, and energy burden (<= 6% at 30% AMI). Zero energy ready (pre-solar) and zero energy manufactured housing had the lowest air leakage, energy use, and almost no energy burden (<= 0.2% at 30% AMI). Findings from this work can be employed to 1) reduce energy burdens and greenhouse gas emissions in affordable housing and 2) inform the evaluation of new and existing manufactured housing (MH) policy efforts aimed at improving housing affordability.