Recent evolution of large offspring size and post-fertilization nutrient provisioning in swordtails

How organisms adapt to diverse environments is a foundational question in evolutionary biology. In addition to directly adapting to ecological conditions, organisms have evolved diverse reproductive strategies that impact the probability that their offspring survive to adulthood. Here, we describe divergence in reproductive strategy between two closely-related species of swordtail fish (Xiphophorus). Swordtail fish and their relatives have evolved viviparity: they have internal fertilization and give birth to fully developed fry. We find that one species, X. malinche, which lives in high-elevation environments, has evolved larger offspring than its closest relative X. birchmanni and dwarfs the offspring size of other species in the genus. The larger fry of X. malinche are more resilient to starvation than their X. birchmanni relatives, hinting that the evolution of large offspring size may be an adaptation to the particularly challenging environments in which X. malinche are born. We find that X. malinche achieves larger offspring size in part by continuing to provision their offspring over the course of embryonic development after fertilization, the first time this process has been documented in the Xiphophorus genus. Moreover, we observe differential regulation in the ovary of genes associated with post-fertilization nutrient provisioning in other species that use this reproductive strategy. These reproductive differences may drive an asymmetric hybrid incompatibility, since X. birchmanni mothers pregnant with F1 embryos give birth to premature and stillborn fry at an exceptionally high rate. ### Competing Interest Statement The authors have declared no competing interest.