3D printing critical materials for rechargeable batteries: from materials, design and optimization strategies to applications

Three-dimensional (3D) printing, an additive manufacturing technique, is widely employed for the fabrication of various electrochemical energy storage devices (EESDs), such as batteries and supercapacitors, ranging from nanoscale to macroscale. This technique offers excellent manufacturing flexibility, geometric designability, cost-effectiveness, and eco-friendliness. Recent studies have focused on the utilization of 3D-printed critical materials for EESDs, which have demonstrated remarkable electrochemical performances, including high energy densities and rate capabilities, attributed to improved ion/electron transport abilities and fast kinetics. However, there is a lack of comprehensive reviews summarizing and discussing the recent advancements in the structural design and application of 3D-printed critical materials for EESDs, particularly rechargeable batteries. In this review, we primarily concentrate on the current progress in 3D printing (3DP) critical materials for emerging batteries. We commence by outlining the key characteristics of major 3DP methods employed for fabricating EESDs, encompassing design principles, materials selection, and optimization strategies. Subsequently, we summarize the recent advancements in 3D-printed critical materials (anode, cathode, electrolyte, separator, and current collector) for secondary batteries, including conventional Li-ion (LIBs), Na-ion (SIBs), K-ion (KIBs) batteries, as well as Li/Na/K/Zn metal batteries, Zn-air batteries, and Ni-Fe batteries. Within these sections, we discuss the 3DP precursor, designprinciples of 3D structures, and working mechanisms of the electrodes. Finally, we address the major challenges and potential applications in the development of 3D-printed critical materials for rechargeable batteries.