Exploring the Earth and Sky

The exploration of the Earth by ancient navigators enabled maps of space and time to be created, initially based on observations of wind, waves, and visible cues from nature, and then evolved toward maps that represented the Earth and its geography. These early maps were based on a model of space that extended beyond the horizon and which formed the basis for navigation across vast oceans. The development of celestial navigation from ancient to modern times is explored, and the use of instruments such as the astrolabe, cross-staffs, and compasses for navigation is described. The increasing knowledge of the stars were encoded in oral traditions, and in star maps, which also depicted the skies with new constellations made visible by longer voyages. The chapter provides several examples of star tales used for navigation, as well as details of how celestial navigation was conducted across the centuries in a variety of cultures.