(Invited) Development of Commercial-Scale High Energy Density Aqueous Zinc Manganese Dioxide Alkaline Batteries for Long Duration Storage

Alkaline zinc manganese dioxide batteries are attractive for grid related energy storage applications but have been limited to relatively low utilization of the active materials to assure good cycling performance. Zinc anodes tend to deteriorate due to shape change, passivation, and dendrite formation during charge/discharge cycles. Manganese dioxide cathodes also deteriorate due to formation of inactive crystalline polymorphs during cycling. Recent work using additives in both the anodes and the cathodes has mitigated these issues and enabled access of much higher active material utilization levels, up to 50% of the two-electron capacity of the zinc and over 75% of the two-electron capacity of the manganese dioxide electrodes. Commercial-scale cylindrical (jelly roll) cells of 150 to 200 Wh, particularly suitable for long duration energy storage with discharge periods from a day to a week, have been manufactured on a pilot line. Their performance and various deployments will be discussed indicating areas where future developments would be of importance.