Volcanic Hazards

Volcanic hazards are direct and indirect, and they encompass diverse phenomena such as pyroclastic and lava flows, poisonous-gas emissions, landslides, lahars, tsunamis, jökulhlaups, and climate change. The geomorphology of volcanic landforms and their deposits provide essential insights into the past and future volcanic hazards. Volcanic disaster management and mitigation require understanding the geologic and geomorphic context, history, and processes behind them, monitoring volcanic centers, and disaster preparedness. Instrument measurements fall into four major categories, subdivided by instrument type, and include seismic, deformation, thermal emission, and gas emission.