Prediction of atherosclerotic cardiovascular risk in early childhood

Atherosclerotic lesions are present even in very young individuals and therefore, risk stratification for cardio-vascular (CV) disease should be implemented in childhood to promote early prevention strategies. In this review we critically appraise clinical, biochemical and genetic biomarkers available for pediatric clinical practice, which might be integrated to build effective algorithms to identify children at risk of future CV events.The first critical issue is to characterize in children aged 2-5 years, those CV risk factors/clinical conditions associated with dramatically accelerated atherosclerosis. Presence of clinical conditions such as obesity, diabetes mellitus, Kawasaki disease, etc., or positive family history for premature CV disease should be evaluated. Sub-sequently, a complete lipid profile and Lipoprotein(a) determination are recommended for children with increased baseline CV risk. Individuals with altered lipid profile could then undergo genetic testing for mono-genic dyslipidemias to identify children with high CV genetic risk, who will be directed to appropriate thera-peutic options. In perspective, calculation of a polygenic risk score, based on the analysis of several common single-nucleotide polymorphisms, could be integrated for better risk assessment.We here emphasize the importance of a "holistic" strategy integrating biochemical, anamnestic and genetic data to stratify CV risk in early childhood.