Utilizing industrial wastes as compost in wheat-rice production to improve the above and below-ground ecosystem services

The prime objective of this study was to enhance the ESs and achieve sustainability in the wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)–rice (Oryza sativa L.) production system (WRPS). The study was conducted in the split-plot design (SPD). In this study’s results were presented as the 2018–2021 average of the WRPS. As compared to zero fertilization in the main-plot, the applied treatment recommended dose of fertilizer (RDF) 100%+ 5 kg zinc (Zn) + 5 kg iron (Fe) increased grain and straw-based ESs by 50% and 39%, respectively. Similarly, in the sub-plot, the carpet waste +Trichoderma viride (CW+M3) treatment had 24% and 22% more grain and straw-based ESs than the application of the bagasse + Pleurotus sajor-caju (B+M1) treatment, respectively. Furthermore, the grain and straw-based ESs interaction between the applications of RDF 100%+ 5 kg Zn + 5 kg Fe × carpet waste decomposed through Trichoderma viride (CW+M3) was significant and observed that the maximum monetary value was US$ 2638 and 557 ha−1 year−1, respectively. There was also 64% more carbon (C) flow and 144% higher soil fertility than those in zero fertilization × B+M1 treatment. While based on other indices in the main-plot, among the different RDF levels, the zero-fertilization plot had the maximum sustainable value index (SVI) (0.880 and 0.985) and sustainable yield index (SYI) (0.977 and 0.983) of wheat and rice in an average of the system for 2018–2021 of WRPS. Furthermore, the sub-plot B+M1 had wheat's highest SVI (0.865) and SYI (0.958). Moreover, in the case of rice, the maximum SVI (0.928) and SYI (0.952) were observed in the pressmud + Pleurotus sajor-caju (PM+M1). All the variables are positively correlated except total, and partial factor productivity. Based on the regression study, the C flow-based ESs contributed to 99.9% variability in grain-based ESs. Based on the above results, this experiment provides unique and distinct information for above and below-ground ESs in WRPS and using IWs to maintain a long-term sustainable food system. The experiment hypothesized that using the IWs as a nutrient source will enhance nutrient use efficiency (NUE), reduce reliance on chemical fertilizers and maintain yield sustainability, improve ESs in WRPS, improve soil health, and ensure a green-sustainable food production system. Additionally, it is an assessable and practical method of sustainably managing waste that correlates well with green economic sustainability to meet the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (UNSDGs).