Enterobacteriaceae Growth Promotion by Intestinal Acylcarnitines, a Biomarker of Dysbiosis in Inflammatory Bowel Disease

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Altered plasma acylcarnitine levels are well-known biomarkers for a variety of mitochondrial fatty acid oxidation disorders and can be used as an alternative energy source for the intestinal epithelium when short-chain fatty acids are low. These membrane-permeable fatty acid in-termediates are excreted into the gut lumen via bile and are increased in the feces of patients with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). METHODS: Herein, based on studies in human subjects, ani-mal models, and bacterial cultures, we show a strong positive correlation between fecal carnitine and acylcarnitines and the abundance of Enterobacteriaceae in IBD where they can be consumed by bacteria both in vitro and in vivo. RESULTS: Carnitine metabolism promotes the growth of Escherichia coli via anaerobic respiration dependent on the cai operon, and acetylcarnitine dietary supplementation increases fecal carnitine levels with enhanced intestinal colonization of the enteric pathogen Citrobacter rodentium. CONCLUSIONS: In total, these results indicate that the increased luminal concentrations of carnitine and acylcarni-tines in patients with IBD may promote the expansion of pathobionts belonging to the Enterobacteriaceae family, thereby contributing to disease pathogenesis.