A comprehensive review on ecological effects of microplastic pollution: An interaction with pollutants in the ecosystems and future perspectives

Microplastic (MP) contamination is considered one of the emerging environmental problems, and ecological effects investigation is critical to pollution control. This work aimed to comprehensively discuss MPs' characteristics, fate, transport, and associated severe impacts on wildlife, including flora and fauna. The abundance, types of polymers, particle size, shape, and associated pollutants vary across different environments, emphasizing the complexity of MPs pollution and the diverse factors influencing their distribution and characteristics. Their (eco)toxicity in the ecosystem rises several times when these polymers act as human-induced stressors by interacting with toxic pollutants such as organics and heavy metals (HMs). MPs could carry other micropollutants into living organisms, increasing potential ecological threats. The coexistence of MPs and organic pollutants presents additional effects, including increased toxicity, (bio)accumulation, physical harm, alteration of microbial communities, and disruption of ecosystems. This effort reveals the potential ecological threat of MPs, organic pollutants, and HMs on biota in freshwater, marine, and terrestrial environments. Furthermore, the possible ecological and environmental protection perspective toward sustainable development was also elucidated. Managing MPs contamination requires a comprehensive analysis of contamination sources, an investigation of ecological effects, and the development of effective mitigation strategies. With a point of view of providing a theoretical basis, the findings of this review fill a vital research gap and give insight into MP contamination in environmental matrices.