Reduced but still noteworthy atmospheric pollution of trace elements in China

The implementation of air pollution control measures has synergistically reduced trace element (TE) emissions. However, there is still a lack of systematic understanding of how these measures affect TE emissions and their associated health risks. Here, we establish a national anthropogenic TE emission inventory based on the Gridded Refined Emission Inventory Database and Map of Hazardous Air Pollutants of mainland China model (GRIDMAP-China). Our estimates show that total TE emissions have decreased by 33.8% from 2012 to 2017, with source composition changing from coal combustion dominated to non-coal combustion (e.g., metal-smelting sector) dominated. Upgrades on industrial boilers is identified to be the largest driver, leading to reductions of 290 to about 3,881 tons in the five urban agglomerations. These trends in TE emissions largely determine the trends in their exposure and health risks. Our study provides critical insight for mitigating TE pollution and associated health risks based on the measure-specific benefits evaluation.