Estimating nitrogen and sulfur deposition across China during 2005 to 2020 based on multiple statistical models

Due to the rapid development of industrialization and a substantial economy, China has become one of the global hotspots of nitrogen (N) and sulfur (S) deposition following Europe and the USA. Here, we developed a dataset with full coverage of N and S deposition from 2005 to 2020, with multiple statistical models that combine ground-level observations, chemistry transport simulations, satellite-derived vertical columns, and meteorological and geographic variables. Based on the newly developed random forest method, the multi-year averages of dry deposition of oxidized nitrogen (OXN), reduced nitrogen (RDN), and S in China were estimated at 10.4, 14.4, and 16.7 kg N/S ha(-1) yr(-1), and the analogous numbers for total deposition were respectively 15.2, 20.2, and 25.9 kg N/S ha(-1) yr(-1) when wet deposition estimated previously with a generalized additive model (GAM) was included. The dry to wet deposition ratio (R-dry/wet) of N stabilized in earlier years and then gradually increased especially for RDN, while that of S declined for over 10 years and then slightly increased. The RDN to OXN deposition ratio (R-RDN/OXN) was estimated to be larger than 1 for the whole research period and clearly larger than that of the USA and Europe, with a continuous decline from 2005 to 2011 and a more prominent rebound afterwards. Compared with the USA and Europe, a more prominent lagging response of OXN and S deposition to precursor emission abatement was found in China. The OXN dry deposition presented a descending gradient from east to west, while the S dry deposition a descending gradient from north to south. After 2012, the OXN and S deposition in eastern China declined faster than the west, attributable to stricter emission controls. Positive correlation was found between regional deposition and emissions, while smaller deposition to emission ratios (D/E) existed in developed eastern China, attributed to more intensive human activities and thereby anthropogenic emissions.