Nonlinear and interaction effects of land use and motorcycles/E-bikes on car ownership

•Household wealth plays a crucial role in car ownership decision in developing cities.•Banning motorcycles/E-bikes motivates people to become car owners.•It amplifies the adverse effects of income and built environment variables on car ownership.•The associations between built environment variables and car ownership are limited in size.•Nonlinear associations between built environment variables and car ownership are prevalent.