Three-dimensional bioprinting vascularized bone tissue

Currently available bone grafts are insufficient to address the demand and lack tissue complexity to mimic the native bone tissue microenvironment. Bone tissue is highly vascular, and vasculature is crucial for bone tissue development and functional integration of the graft to the native defect site. Three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting has emerged as an advanced biomanufacturing technology to develop vascularized bone tissue with architectural, structural, biochemical, and cellular complexity. This article includes currently available 3D bioprinting technologies and corresponding bioinks followed by a detailed review on 3D bioprinting strategies for vasculature. Finally, the current state of the art in 3D bioprinting of vascularized bone tissue is presented. Graphical abstract