An open-source automatic survey of green roofs in London using segmentation of aerial imagery

Green roofs can mitigate heat, increase biodiversity, and attenuate storm water, giving some of the benefits of natural vegetation in an urban context where ground space is scarce. To guide the design of more sustainable and climate-resilient buildings and neighbourhoods, there is a need to assess the existing status of green roof coverage and explore the potential for future implementation. Therefore, accurate information on the prevalence and characteristics of existing green roofs is needed, but this information is currently lacking. Segmentation algorithms have been used widely to identify buildings and land cover in aerial imagery. Using a machine learning algorithm based on U-Net to segment aerial imagery, we surveyed the area and coverage of green roofs in London, producing a geospatial dataset (, ). We estimate that there was 0.23 km(2) of green roof in the Central Activities Zone (CAZ) of London, 1.07 km(2) in Inner London, and 1.89 km(2) in Greater London in the year 2021. This corresponds to 2.0 % of the total building footprint area in the CAZ and 1.3 % in Inner London. There is a relatively higher concentration of green roofs in the City of London, covering 3.9 % of the total building footprint area. Test set accuracy was 0.99, with an F score of 0.58. When tested against imagery and labels from a different year (2019), the model performed just as well as a model trained on the imagery and labels from that year, showing that the model generalised well between different imagery. We improve on previous studies by including more negative examples in the training data and by requiring coincidence between vector building footprints and green roof patches. We experimented with different data augmentation methods and found a small improvement in performance when applying random elastic deformations, colour shifts, gamma adjustments, and rotations to the imagery. The survey covers 1558 km2 of Greater London, making this the largest open automatic survey of green roofs in any city. The geospatial dataset is at the single-building level, providing a higher level of detail over the larger area compared to what was already available. This dataset will enable future work exploring the potential of green roofs in London and on urban climate modelling.