Analysis of psychoactive substances and metabolites in sludges, soils, sediments and biota: a review

The use of psychoactive substances, including illegal drugs, drugs of abuse and psychiatric pharmaceuticals, is a major health and environmental issue. In particular, drugs are found in urban sewage and water ecosystems. The analysis of drugs in wastewater is challenging because drugs occur at trace levels in complex organo-mineral media, calling for advanced analytical methods. Here we review recent methods developped to analyze drugs in sludge, sediments, soils and biota. Extraction methods include solid–liquid extraction, sonication, microwave, and quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged and safe extraction (QuEChERS). We compare and discuss advantages and disadvantages of each analytical step for various sample types.