Spatio-temporal patterns of ichthyoplankton in southern Chilean Patagonia: beta-diversity and associated environmental factors

Fjords play an important role in biological productivity worldwide but are vulnerable to climate/anthropogenic effects. Chilean Patagonia (41 degrees S-55 degrees S) is one of the largest fjord ecosystems in the world, characterized by a complex geography with highly het-erogeneous hydrographic conditions and a permanent input from oceanic water mass, both of which influence the ichthyoplankton distributional patterns. In this study, we analysed the distributional patterns of ichthyoplankton and its diversity during austral spring from 1996, 2009 and 2019 in the southern Chilean fjords (47 degrees S-54 degrees S). The area shows important latitudinal gradients of sea surface tempera -ture (from 15 degrees C to 5 degrees C), fjord-ocean variability in salinity (from 23 to 33) and water column temperature (3 degrees C to 9 degrees C). Spatial (but not temporal) variations in the compo-sition and abundance of ichthyoplankton were recorded, caused mainly by differ-ences in the abundance of larval Sprattus fuegensis, Maurolicus australis and Sebastes oculatus. Richness was higher on continental shelf and the lowest nearby fjord's head and ice fields. At the spatial scale, beta-diversity showed an increased species replace-ment (turnover) across areas, suggesting an important role of environmental condi-tions (e.g., salinity and water stratification) on the larval fish structure in this region. Ordination analysis indicates that changes in salinity and temperature, caused by ice melting, is the main environmental factor influencing the abundance of larval Thysa-nopsetta naresi (1996), Cataetyx messieri (2009) and Bathylagichthys parini (2019). Finally, this study highlights the importance of the conservation and protection of the Chilean Patagonia and monitoring ichthyoplankton communities, which are vital biomarkers of ecosystem health.