With and beyond sustainability certification: Exploring inclusive business and solidarity economy strategies in Peru and Switzerland

•Well-being impacts of certification schemes need to be compared with alternative private governance strategies.•Inclusive business and solidarity economy constitute two contrasting private governance strategies.•Paper presents an exploratory comparative analysis of four cases from the cacao sectors of Peru and Switzerland.•Value chain actors combine elements of certification, solidarity economy, and inclusive business into portfolios of instruments.•These instruments may address some barriers of certification, but come with own risks and limitations.