The influence of bismuth participation on the morphological and electrochemical characteristics of gallium oxide for the detection of adrenaline

In this work, we investigated the morphological and electrochemical properties of gallium/bismuth mixed oxide. The bismuth concentration was varied from 0 to 100%. The correct ratio was determined with inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES), while surface characteristics were determined using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) measurement. Electrochemical characteristics were studied using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) in the Fe 2+/3+ couple. The obtained materials were tested for adrenaline detection. After square wave voltammetry (SWV) optimization, the best electrode showed a wide linear working range from 7 to 100 µM at pH 6 of the Britton–Robinson buffer solution (BRBS) supporting electrolyte. The limit of detection (LOD) for the proposed method was calculated as 1.9 µM, with a limit of quantification (LOQ) of 5.8 µM. The excellent selectivity of the proposed method, with good repeatability and reproducibility, strongly suggests the possible application of the procedure for the determination of adrenaline in artificially prepared real samples. The practical applicability with good recovery values indicates that the morphology of the materials is closely connected with other parameters, which further suggests that the developed approach can offer a low-cost, rapid, selective, and sensitive method for adrenaline monitoring. Graphical abstract