Measuring methods for groundwater, surface water and their interactions: a review

Abstract. Interactions between groundwater and surface water play a critical role in the functioning of riparian ecosystems. In the context of sustainable river basin management it is crucial to understand and quantify exchange processes between groundwater and surface water. Numerous well-known methods exist for parameter estimation and process identification in aquifers and surface waters. The transition zone, however, has only in recent years become a subject of major research interest, and the need has evolved for appropriate methods applicable in this zone. This article provides an overview of the methods that are typically used in aquifers and surface waters when studying interactions and shows the possibilities of application in the transition zone. In addition, methods particularly for use in the transition zone are presented. Considerations for choosing appropriate methods are given including spatial and temporal scales, uncertainties, and limitations in application. It is concluded that a multi-scale approach combining multiple measuring methods may considerably constrain estimates of fluxes between groundwater and surface water.