In situ characterisation for nanoscale structure-performance studies in electrocatalysis.

Recently, electrocatalytic reactions involving oxygen, nitrogen, water, and carbon dioxide have been developed to substitute conventional chemical processes, with the aim of producing clean energy, fuels and chemicals. A deepened understanding of catalyst structures, active sites and reaction mechanisms plays a critical role in improving the performance of these reactions. To this end, / characterisations can be used to visualise the dynamic evolution of nanoscale materials and reaction intermediates under electrolysis conditions, thus enhancing our understanding of heterogeneous electrocatalytic reactions. In this review, we summarise the state-of-the-art characterisation techniques used in electrocatalysis. We categorise them into three sections based on different working principles: microscopy, spectroscopy, and other characterisation techniques. The capacities and limits of the characterisation techniques are discussed in each section to highlight the present-day horizons and guide further advances in the field, primarily aiming at the users of these techniques. Finally, we look at challenges and possible strategies for further development of techniques.