Advances in Biomass-Based Levulinic Acid Production

Levulinic acid (LA) was discovered in 1875 by heating candy with concentrated acid. Since then, it has been generated in a variety of ways from commercial sugars and their products in-cluding glucose, fructose, cellulose, 5-(hydroxymethyl)furfural (5-HMF), maleic anhydride and furfuryl alcohol. However, the concern of food security has led to search for sustainable feedstock for the production of LA such as biomass. Although the use of biomass as substrate for LA synthesis offer various advantages, however, the shift to a bioeconomy remains difficult due to the several contributing variables that must be addressed, as detailed in this review. Various catalysts, including homogeneous, heterogeneous, and ionic liquids, have been employed in the development of an ecologically acceptable and lucrative method for producing LA from biomass. This study examines the literature on LA production from 1875 to 2021, what has been accomplished, and what ongoing obstacles exist. Graphical Abstract