Dissolved Methane in the World's Largest Semi-Enclosed Estuarine System: The Estuary and Gulf of St. Lawrence (Canada)

We report the first water-column dissolved methane data set from the Estuary and Gulf of St. Lawrence (EGSL). Per surface-water methane concentration and sea-to-air flux, the upper estuary behaved like a typical shallow macrotidal estuary, while the lower estuary and the gulf resembled outer shelf seas and ocean slopes, respectively. The EGSL emitted 166.3 (71.5-214.4) x 10(6) mol CH4 year(-1) to the atmosphere, representing 0.3% (0.1%-0.4%) of the total emission from global estuarine environments. A net production of 11.7 x 10(7) mol CH4 year(-1) was required to sustain this emission. Methane distributions in the upper estuary were dominated by physical mixing, while those in the lower estuary and the gulf bore characteristic subsurface maxima and deep minima shedding light on the methane consumption and production pathways. Elevated but highly variable near-bottom methane concentrations (10.4-695.3 nmol L-1) transpired over pockmarks on the seabed of the lower estuary, inferring an upward diffusive flux of up to similar to 700 mmol CH4 m(2) d(-1). Hypoxia in the lower estuary bottom water had little influence on methane concentrations. Lab incubations yielded methane cycling rates from a net production of 0.0068 nmol L-1 d(-1) to net consumption with turnover times of 33.3-263 days. Methane in the EGSL was isotopically enriched with C-13 (delta C-13(CH4): -40.9 parts per thousand to -27.4 parts per thousand relative to Peedee Belemnite). This study reveals that the EGSL is a smaller proportional contributor to methane emission from estuarine environments and that complex physical-biogeochemical interactions control methane cycling and isotopic composition in this vast estuarine system.