Large differences in ammonia emission factors between greenhouse and open-field systems under different practices across Chinese vegetable cultivation

Estimating ammonia (NH3) emission factors (EFs) for vegetable production can support assessment of potential atmospheric pollution risk and provide information for mitigating NH3 volatilization. The EFs in greenhouse and open-field systems under different fertilization, irrigation regimes, vegetable types and soil properties in both greenhouse and open-field vegetable production systems in China are poorly understood. An integrated analysis was performed, including 282 field measurements of NH3 volatilization from 54 field studies, to quantify ammonia EFs under different management practices and soil properties. The results showed that the mean ammonia EF across all measurements was 4.2 % (3.6 %–4.8 %). The EFs of greenhouse and open-field systems were 2.0 % (1.5 %–2.5 %) and 6.3 % (5.4 %–7.2 %), respectively. There was a power function relationship between nitrogen application rate and ammonia EF in greenhouses. No relationship was identified between nitrogen application rate and ammonia EF in the open-field system. The EFs of organic fertilizers were lower than those of both chemical fertilizers and the combination of chemical and organic fertilizers. EFs of leafy vegetables, cabbages, solanaceous vegetables and melons were 2.7 %, 2.9 %, 1.4 % and 1.4 % in the greenhouse system, and 5.2 %, 5.7 %, 7.6 % and 9.7 % in the open-field system, respectively. The EFs of the greenhouse production system increased with increasing soil organic matter. Boosted regression tree analysis showed that N application rate, pH and soil organic matter were the main driving factors of EFs in the greenhouse system. Vegetable type, pH and soil organic matter were the main driving factors in the open-field system. In this study, the EFs were evaluated and distinguished across greenhouse and open-field systems, and the results provided accurate EFs under different management practices and soil properties for vegetable production in both greenhouse and open-field systems.