Rotational Extension Promotes Coeval Upper Crustal Brittle Faulting and Deep-Seated Rift-Axis Parallel Flow: Dynamic Coupling Processes Inferred From Analog Model Experiments

The lower parts of warm, thick continental crust can flow in a ductile fashion to accommodate thinning of the upper brittle crust during extension. Naturally occurring continental rifts with a rift-axis parallel deformation gradient imply an underlying rotational component. In such settings, rift-parallel crustal flow transports material perpendicular to the direction of rifting. We use analog experiments to investigate rotational rifting and coeval crustal flow. To test the effect of rift-axis parallel flow on rift evolution, we use different gravitational loads resulting in a range of horizontal pressure gradient magnitudes which drive horizontal lower-crustal flow. The use of (three dimensional) 3D Digital Volume Correlation techniques on X-ray CT data combined with 3D Digital Image Correlation techniques applied to topographic stereo images provides detailed insights on the contemporaneous evolution of ductile flow patterns and brittle rift structures, respectively. Our results depict a complex flow field in the ductile lower crust during rotational rifting with: (a) extension-parallel horizontal inward flow and vertical upward flow that compensates thinning of the brittle upper crustal layer; (b) rift-axis parallel lateral flow, that compensates greater amounts of thinning further away from the rotation axis; and (c) different degrees of mechanical coupling between the brittle and viscous layers that change during rift propagation. Our analog experiments provide insights into ductile lower crustal flow patterns during rift evolution. The results emphasize the three dimensionality of rifting, which is an important effect that should be considered when estimating the amount of crustal extension from two dimensional (2D) cross sections.