Tracing the formation and modification of the Keketale VMS-type Pb-Zn deposit, Altai Mountains: Insights from ore deposit geology, geochronology, and magnetite geochemistry

•The Keketale Pb-Zn deposit was formed and was modified in ∼400 Ma and ∼265 Ma, respectively.•The original VMS hydrothermal system can be illustrated by magnetite petrology and geochemistry.•Magnetite has the potential to be an indicator of VMS mineralization.•The Keketale deposit witnessed the evolution of the Chinese Altai and the Paleo-Asian Ocean.