Probabilistic Estimation of the Aggregate Dietary and Inhalation Exposure of Austrian Adults to Cadmium and Health Risk Assessment

Cadmium is ubiquitous in the environment and in food and accumulates in the body, affecting kidney, lung, and bone. The aggregate exposure to cadmium was probabilistically estimated through two major routes: ingestion of food and water and inhalation of ambient air/tobacco smoke, followed by health risk assessment, with focus on the cardinal systemic effect of cadmium, nephrotoxicity. The magnitude of the aggregate intake was estimated with the Monte Carlo method, using actual occurrence and consumption data. As absorption rates of the individual exposure routes determine the internal exposure, alternative exposure scenarios considered different relationships between the absorption capacities for the individual exposure routes, according to published experimental and modelling data. Emphasis was placed on the exposure of women, a vulnerable population. Intake and internal exposure levels were compared with health-based guidance values and with a cut-off level for renal effects, respectively. Proportions of individuals with intakes exceeding these values, as well as contributions of the individual exposure routes to the aggregate exposure were calculated. The contribution of inhalation to the aggregate intake of non-smokers is negligible, whilst it is prominent for smokers. Risks are high for smokers, especially those consuming non-filtered cigarettes, and are maximized for women. Internal exposures of smokers exceed the cut-off value for irreversible renal effects up to 2.2-fold. The percentage of smokers with exposures exceeding the health-based guidance values is alarming, reaching 77% for women. Occurrence data gaps, simulation of the smoking pattern, and lack of information about passive smoking exposures are main sources of uncertainty.